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Oxford University Unveils 2 Letters on Ancient Egyptian Mathematics

The Pyramid of Khufu, the largest of the pyramids of Giza. (Reuters)
The Pyramid of Khufu, the largest of the pyramids of Giza. (Reuters)
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Oxford University Unveils 2 Letters on Ancient Egyptian Mathematics

The Pyramid of Khufu, the largest of the pyramids of Giza. (Reuters)
The Pyramid of Khufu, the largest of the pyramids of Giza. (Reuters)

Two researchers at Oxford University unveiled a scientific document on mathematics in Ancient Egypt.

The document features two letters exchanged between Thomas Eric Peet (1882–1934), who was professor of Egyptology at the University of Liverpool and then a professor of Egyptology at Oxford, and Otto Neugebauer (1899–1990), one of the most prominent mathematics historians in the 20th century.

The letters were found at Peet's house, and then gifted to the Queen's College at Oxford. A recent study published in the latest issue of the Historia Mathematica journal, showcased the letters which shed light on the early 20th century study of ancient Egyptian math and issues of historical approaches to the ancient world.

The study was led by historian of mathematics Dr. Christopher Hollings and Egyptology Professor Richard Bruce Parkinson, who worked together on evaluating the discussions between Peet and Neugebauer, and a study prepared by Peet on a Rhind Mathematical Papyrus dating from 1537 BCE, now held in the British Museum.

In his study, Peet said the papyrus consists of over 80 arithmetical and geometrical problems and solutions, ranging from the distribution of rations among workers, to the calculation of areas and volumes. As such, it is one of the most complete surviving sources providing an insight into the mathematics used in ancient Egypt.

Peet's edition reignited academic interest in Egyptian mathematics. One of the people whom his work inspired was Neugebauer, who subsequently wrote a doctoral dissertation on the principles of Egyptian fraction reckoning (as reflected in the Rhind Papyrus).

According to Hollings and Parkinson, the letters between the pair shed light on the way in which ancient Egyptian mathematics was being re-evaluated in the 1920s.

They explained that the letters reveal a contrast between the attitudes of two scholars who approached the subject with different viewpoints. Both were competent mathematicians and Egyptologists, and yet one of them, Neugebauer, put the mathematics first, and linked the modern ideas on mathematics to the direct evidence of papyri.

As per Peet, he brought Egyptological considerations to the fore, and confined his analysis largely to what was clearly and unequivocally present in the ancient text.

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Chinese Tea Hub Branches into Coffee as Tastes Change

A worker raking coffee beans during the drying process at the Xiaowazi, or Little Hollow, coffee plantation in Pu'er - AFP
A worker raking coffee beans during the drying process at the Xiaowazi, or Little Hollow, coffee plantation in Pu'er - AFP
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Chinese Tea Hub Branches into Coffee as Tastes Change

A worker raking coffee beans during the drying process at the Xiaowazi, or Little Hollow, coffee plantation in Pu'er - AFP
A worker raking coffee beans during the drying process at the Xiaowazi, or Little Hollow, coffee plantation in Pu'er - AFP

At a mountainside cafe in southwestern China, Liao Shihao brews handfuls of locally grown beans into steaming cups of coffee, a modern twist on the region's traditional drink.

For centuries, Pu'er in Yunnan province has given its name to a type of richly fermented tea -- sometimes styled "pu-erh" -- famous across East Asia and beyond.

But as younger Chinese cultivate a taste for punchy espressos, frothy lattes and flat whites, growers are increasingly branching out into tea's historic rival.

"People are coming to try our hand-drip coffee... and more fully experience the flavours it brings," Liao, 25, told AFP.
"In the past, they mostly went for commercialised coffee, and wouldn't dabble in the artisanal varieties," he said.

Liao´s family has run the Xiaowazi, or Little Hollow, coffee plantation for three generations.

Nestled in a shady valley, spindly coffee trees line its steep hillsides, their cherry-like fruit drying on wooden pallets outside.

When AFP visited this month, clusters of tourists sipped boutique brews in the airy cafe overlooking its verdant slopes.

"It's very good," said Cai Shuwen, 21, as he perched on a bar stool lifting sample after sample to his lips.

"Even though some beans are more astringent than I imagined, others have exceeded my expectations."

- Brewing success -

Every year, Pu'er's plantations sell tens of thousands of tons of coffee to major Chinese cities, according to government data.

In metropolises such as Beijing and Shanghai, a thriving cafe scene has emerged in recent years, driven by people aged between 20 and 40.

To Liao, a trained roaster and barista, coffee from his home region possesses "a creamy flavour with a silky, viscous mouthfeel".

Modern commercial plantations only sprang up in Pu'er in the 1980s, and the area is still better known for its centuries-old tea trade.

Liao's grandfather, Liao Xiugui, said "nobody knew anything about coffee" when he arrived in Pu'er a few decades ago.

At the time, the older man was one of very few people in China who had studied coffee cultivation.

But the region's relatively high altitude and temperate climate were well-suited to the unfamiliar crop, the now 83-year-old told AFP.

"The quality of the coffee we plant here is strong but not too bitter, floral but not too heady, and slightly fruity," he added.

Free from artificial pesticides and interspersed with other species for biodiversity, Little Hollow yields about 500 tons of raw coffee fruit per year.

Liao Xiugui himself drinks two or three cups a day, and credits the caffeinated beverage for keeping him spry in his advanced years.

"Drinking coffee can make you younger and healthier... and prevent ageing," he smiled.

"Also, everyone is tired at work these days... and they want to give their brains a boost."

- Richer pickings -

China's coffee output has risen dramatically in recent years, though it still lags far behind traditional powerhouses such as Brazil, Vietnam and Colombia.

Yunnan, near three borders with Southeast Asian nations, accounts for virtually all of China's coffee production, much of it concentrated in Pu'er.

On a visit to Yunnan last month, President Xi Jinping said the province's coffee "represents China", according to state media.

Keen to further expand the sector, officials have rolled out policies to improve production, attract investment and boost exports, according to government statements.

They have also merged coffee production with tourism, dovetailing with a central government push to increase domestic consumption.

Longtime farmer Yu Dun, 51, said she had opened new income streams with plantation tours, homestays and a restaurant fusing coffee with the cuisine of her native Dai ethnicity.

Her prospects were bright, she said, adding that she also earned "10 times" more revenue from her beans since learning to process and roast them herself.

"We used to say only rich people could drink coffee, but that's all changed now," she said.