The period between 800 and 200 BC saw the emergence of many of history’s major figures. Among those who emerged during this epoch and left their mark on history are Confucius, Buddha, the Hebrew prophets (Amos, Isaiah, Jeremiah...), Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, and Zoroaster - also known as Zarathustra, recent studies suggest that he comes from an earlier time. These men born in China, India, Palestine, Greece and Iran were the heroes of the era that the German philosopher Karl Jaspers called the Axial Age, which became particularly condensed around 500 BC and constitutes, after that of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, human history’s second civilizational push forward.
These six centuries saw shifts that drastically changed how the economy functioned, empires were structured, and peoples were governed, as well as the scale of cities. It seemed that humanity’s conception of itself and the world was taking an evolutionary leap forward.
Jaspers was not the first to present this periodization of history. He was, however, the first to formulate and crystallize it in this manner, thereby pushing back against the Christian-European narrative of human history that divides it into what came before and after Christ. According to Hegel, the idea of the Christian Trinity was the focal point of the major historical shift that emphasized the centrality of Christ. And although Jaspers says that he was inspired by Hegel, his idea of the Axial Age, as elucidated in his book “On the Origin and Goal of History” (1949), turns Hegels’ periodization on its head.
Nonetheless, the fact remains that, more deeply than anything else, the Axial Age was marked by the emergence of a transcendental vision espoused by the prophets and philosophers of the era. This led to the reevaluation - or replacement, per this vision and its dictates - of earthly policies and ethics, and the new religious component imposed changes and revisions on both theology and ritual. The absolute and final authority (of god or gods) came to transcend the natural world, while the course of the universe came to be seen as cycles that represent the divine in motion.
The transcendence of human perception does not necessarily impact the spatial realm. Rather, it meant that the spatial and temporal metrics of our lives do not apply to that which lies beyond the universe. This is something that we humans cannot conceive of because we are subject to the conditions of time and space.
Indeed, it was during the Axial Age that humans began to contemplate the limitations of their comprehension and, for the first time, to think about this force that lies beyond them and is capable of what they are not.
Prior to this epoch, humanity had not thought of a world other than this one, nor did it think that there was an alternative reality to that of our world. This was the shift from religions founded on nature to ones that transcend nature with which the mysterious and obscure realm of the supernatural was born.
Of course, gods had been thought of as higher beings than humans with far superior powers. However, they were nonetheless anthropic gods who resided in the same world as us, even if they sometimes hid in caves and valleys.
Nor did it occur to anyone, prior to this period, that it could be possible for all to be equal somewhere. It was unimaginable that rulers and high priests could, at any level, be equal to shepherds and farmers. However, the Axial Age saw the triumph of the idea that people could, at the very least, possess powers and abilities that entitle them to equality, as well as being held equally accountable through complete justice, another idea that had just emerged at the time.
No one had ever thought that they could rise to the heavens and be held accountable according to the same criteria that applied to the powerful. All that was sought from the sacrifices offered to the gods was the alleviation of the hardships and difficulties of this life. The fact is that, in a sense, the day of judgment, heaven, hell, and the afterlife are demands for justice that compensates for the injustices of the earth.
Of course, the Axial Age did not abolish sacrifices to temples and other practices of this sort, as such shifts require centuries. Nevertheless, a new form of religious practice began to pave a path for itself. With it, what happened in the temple would cease to be the same as what happened in the lives of people.
With the need to discover the “secrets” of the universe and religion, the expert class began to emerge. Despite predating the Axial Age, Hinduism in India was influenced by the novelties of the epoch, giving rise to the “guru.” His role differs from that of the Hindu priest, who is limited to ancient temples and sacrifice offerings.
Gurus teach people who are not necessarily religious how to strengthen their relationship with the final and absolute authority, adding a qualitative new layer to their lives. The same is true for Judaism, which saw the emergence of the Rabbinic tradition. Like gurus, Rabbis teach laymen how to be at peace with God.
The emergence of a mysterious transcendent realm precipitated an anthropological shift with which human beings came to be defined beyond their social role and their natural appearance. The spirit and soul, as part of the “supernatural” or an extension of it, were now emphasized. And so, for the first time in history, human society became the object of reflective analysis.
Some critics have found that the flaw in Jaspers’ theory is like that of a European/Christian opinion that was broadly shared in the 19th century: the advent of Christ was the single greatest turning point in world history. True, the Axial Age accounts for China, India and Palestine and breaks with the exclusive focus on Europe and Christianity.
However, its critics argue that it sees the world through European eyes. Jaspers, in their view, removed Christ as history’s leading figure to replace him with Confucius, Buddha, Isaiah, and Socrates. What he did not do, however, is let go of the idea of centrality itself.
