For nearly an entire year, from 1848 to 1849, Europe experienced what became known as the "Spring of Nations" or the "Springtime of the Peoples," a wave of revolutions and unrest that spread from France to some 50 European countries and provinces.
That period witnessed the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history. Although predominantly political, with democratic aspirations, the uprisings sought to dismantle old feudal structures and establish independent nation-states.
Historically, what is striking is that the spark of Europe's first revolutionary spring came from France. As the old saying goes, when Paris sneezes, the rest of Europe's capitals catch a cold.
Is Europe now entering an autumn that could rewrite the history of that earlier spring?
Any comparison requires a degree of historical perspective. The scenes of violence unfolding across Europe today will not necessarily develop into the kinds of revolutions that shook the European order in the 19th century.
This time, the forces driving Europe's autumn of anger center on a crisis of confidence in ruling elites, economic pressures that fuel social and humanitarian unrest, the rise of nationalism and protests against traditional institutions.
Above all, in this writer's view, there is the recurring question of Europe's identity, its roots and its future.
Some senior European politicians argue that the left, accused of extremism and of making common cause, however haphazardly rather than through any organized alliance, with criminals and thieves, has managed to turn the French Republic upside down in a matter of hours.
A closer examination reveals a dangerous triangle of interconnected forces, not only in France but probably in most, if not all, European countries: severe economic headwinds; waves of immigration, with large segments of migrant populations struggling, and sometimes unwilling, to integrate, though this certainly does not apply to everyone; and a ruling political class that appears to have run out of ideas and become almost incapable of creativity or innovation on various fronts.
The current situation raises a fundamental question about the fate of Europe's liberal, Enlightenment-inspired civilization. Is a continent that has enjoyed such a long age of enlightenment now heading toward darkness?
The answer lies in the European street, where hard-right movements, some verging on extremism, are gaining ground. From the Alternative for Germany (AfD) to France's National Rally, which could capture the French presidency in a matter of months, similar political forces are advancing across the continent.
Yet Europe's troubles will not simply disappear, even if the political elites currently clinging to power are replaced.
The continent's economic predicament will persist, particularly as Europe loses its ability to compete economically with East Asia on one side and the United States on the other.
Its inability to meet the demands of economic reform will therefore remain unresolved. Dark clouds of austerity programs will hang over the continent, deepening social tensions and intensifying populist anger.
But what if the populists fail to gain power across Europe and the status quo remains unchanged?
Here, another set of European theories emerges, connected to an even more intriguing external dimension that takes us into the world of Russophobia and hybrid warfare.
Some observers of the European scene believe Russia has a hand in recent events, using Europeans themselves to destabilize the continent rather than bearing the burden of another direct military confrontation.
The Kremlin is at odds with recent European moves, particularly those of Germany and Britain, which continue to support Ukraine with Storm Shadow missiles and billions of euros despite severe economic crises at home.
This support is intended to compensate Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky for Washington's reluctance to remain engaged, as President Donald Trump presses ahead with diesel deals and the easing of sanctions with Russian President Vladimir Putin as part of a broader arrangement aimed at rescuing an America struggling with crises on other fronts.
On walls across Paris, protesters have written the words: "Pitch Darkness in the City of Light."
Will the flames of this anger spread across the rest of Europe?
The outcome of the revolutions of 1848 will not necessarily be repeated. But Europe's existential questions remain: Who governs? In whose interests? And what keeps societies together when confidence in the established order begins to crumble?
